Electric Airplanes

Electric Airplanes

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An electric aircraft is an aircraft that runs on electric motors rather than internal combustion engines, with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors, power beaming,[1] or batteries.

Currently flying electric aircraft are mostly experimental demonstrators, including manned and unmanned aerial vehicles. Electrically powered model aircraft have been flown since the 1970s, with one report in 1957.[2]

In 1883 Gaston Tissandier was the first to use electric motors in airship propulsion.[3] The following year, Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs flew La France with a more powerful motor.[3]

Nikola Tesla envisaged using electrically powered aircraft, powered by beams from the ground or the ionosphere.[citation needed]

Electric motors have been used for model fixed-wing aircraft since from at least 1957, with a challenged claim from 1909.[4]

In 1964 William C. Brown demonstrates on CBS News with Walter Cronkite a model helicopter that receives all of the power needed for flight from a microwave beam.[5]

In 1973, Fred Militky and Heino Brditschka converted an HB-3 to an electric aircraft. Heino flew it for 14 minutes that same year.[6]

In 2007 the non-profit CAFE Foundation held the first Electric Aircraft Symposium in San Francisco.[7] The first electric registered aircraft makes its first flights the 2007-12-23 : BL1E "Electra" (F-PMDJ).[8]

In 2009, a team from the Turin Polytechnic University made a conversion of a Pioneer Alpi 300. It flew 250 km/h for 14 minutes.[9]

By 2011 the use of electric power for aircraft was gaining momentum. At AirVenture in that year the Electric Aircraft World Symposium was held and attracted wide attention. It was sponsored by GE Aviation and included presentations by US Air Force, NASA, Sikorsky Aircraft, Argonne National Labs and the US Federal Aviation Administration.[10]

Experimental projects[edit]

1970s and 1980s[edit]

Sunrise[edit]

The 27 lb (12 kg) unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise, the result of an ARPA contract, made the world's first solar-powered flight from Bicycle Lake, a dry lakebed on the Fort Irwin Military Reservation, on 4 November 1974. The improved Sunrise II flew on 27 September 1975 at Nellis Air Force Base.[11][12][13]

Solar Riser[edit]

The world’s first official flight in a solar powered, man carrying aircraft took place on April 29, 1979. The Mauro Solar Riser was built by Larry Mauro and was based on the UFM Easy Riser biplane hang glider. The aircraft used photovoltaic cells that produced 350 watts at 30 volts, which charged a Hughes 500 helicopter battery, which in turn powered the electric motor. The aircraft was capable of powering the motor for 3 to 5 minutes, following a 1.5-hour charge, enabling it to reach a gliding altitude.[14]

Solar One[edit]

The Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One was designed by David Williams under the direction of Freddie To, an architect and member of the Kremer prize committee and produced by Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments. A motor-glider type aircraft originally built as a pedal powered airplane to attempt the Channel crossing, the airplane proved too heavy to be successfully powered by human power and was then converted to solar power,[15] using an electric motor driven by batteries that were charged before flight by a solar cell array on the wing.[16] The maiden flight of Solar One took place at Lasham Airfield; Hampshire on June 13, 1979.[17]

Gossamer Penguin and Solar Challenger[edit]

The Gossamer Penguin, a smaller version of the human powered Gossamer Albatross was completely solar powered. A second prototype, the Solar Challenger, flew 262 km (163 mi) from Paris to England.[18] On 7 July 1981, the aircraft, under solar-power, flew 163 miles from Cormeilles-en-Vexin Airport near Paris across the English Channel to RAF Manston near London, flying for 5 hours and 23 minutes. Designed by Dr. Paul MacCready the Solar Challenger set an altitude record of 14,300 feet.[19]

MIT Monarch and Monarch-B[edit]

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Monarch[20] aircraft project was a series of two aircraft designed to win the Kremer prize for human powered aircraft speed record. The aircraft used an electrical motor along with batteries which were charged by the pedalling action of an athlete piloting the aircraft.[21]

Aerovironment Bionic Bat[edit]

The Aerovironment Bionic Bat was an aircraft built to compete for the Kremer Speed Challenge, one in a series of Kremer prize offerings administered by the Royal Aeronautical Society. It incorporated an electric motor that doubled as a generator while on the ground, with the pilot's pedaling action charging ni-cad batteries. The stored energy was used to supplement pedal power from the pilot during record attempts. In 1984, Bionic Bat won two segments of the Kremer Speed Challenge.[22]

Solair 1[edit]

The human piloted Solair 1 was developed by Günther Rochelt and based on a Hans Farner canard design.[2][23] It employed 2499 wing-mounted solar cells giving an output of between 1.8 kilowatts (kW), equivalent to approximatlly 2.4 horsepower (hp), and 2.2 kW (3.0 hp). The aircraft first flew at Unterwössen, Germany on 21 August 1983.[2] It flew for 5 hours and 41 minutes, "mostly on solar energy and also thermals".[2] The aircraft is now displayed at the German Museum in Munich.[23] The newly developed piloted Solair II made its first flight in May 1998 and further test flights that summer but the propulsion system overheated too fast.[23] Development stopped when Günther Rochelt suddenly died in September 1998.

NASA Pathfinder and Helios[edit]

NASA's Pathfinder and Helios were a series of solar and fuel cell system-powered unmanned aircraft. AeroVironment, Inc. developed the vehicle under NASA's Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology program.[24][25]

1990s[edit]

Solar Flight's Sunseeker flying over Southern California's high desert

Sunseeker[edit]

During the summer of 1990, the solar powered airplane Sunseeker, piloted by Eric Raymond, became the first solar powered airplane to cross the United States.[26] It used a small battery pack charged by solar cells on the wings for takeoff, and then was able to fly directly on solar power.[27]

The Sunseeker II, built in 2002, was updated in 2005–2006 with a more powerful motor, larger wing, lithium battery packs and updated control electronics.[28] As of Dec, 2008 it was the only manned solar powered airplane in flying condition and was flown regularly by Solar Flight.[27] In 2009 it became the first solar-powered aircraft to cross the Alps, 99 years after the first crossing of the Alps by an aircraft.[29][30]

Soaring[edit]

Test Flight of Soaring in 1994

Summary of Configuration and Performance Parameter of “Soaring”

China's first solar powered aircraft "Soaring" was designed and built by Danny H. Y. Li and Zhao Yong in 1992. The body and wings are hand-built predominantly of carbon fiber, Kevlar and wood. The design uses winglets to increase the effective wing span and reduce induced drag.[31][32]

Icaré II[edit]

The German solar powered aircraft "Icaré II" was designed and built by the institute of aircraft design (Institut für Flugzeugbau) of the University of Stuttgart in 1996. The leader of the project and often pilot of the aircraft is Rudolf Voit-Nitschmann the head of the institute. The design won the Berblinger prize in 1996, the EAA Special Achievement Award in Oshkosh, the Golden Daidalos Medal of the German Aeroclub and the OSTIV-Prize in France in 1997.[33]

LF20[edit]

Built by Lange Flugzeugbau GmbH, the LF20[34] was a heavily modified DG800. First flown on 7 May 1999, the aircraft was used as a flying testbed and technology demonstrator. Powered by NiMh cells and using the same EA42 propulsion system as the later Antares 20E, the LF20 could climb 1725 m on one charge.

2000s[edit]

Antares 20E and 23E[edit]

The Antares 20E is an electric, self-launching 20-meter sailplane with a 42-kW DC/DC brushless motor and lithium-ion batteries. It can climb up to 3,000 meters with fully charged cells.[35] The first flight was in 2003. The Antares 20E was the first aircraft with an electric propulsion system to obtain a certificate of airworthiness. In 2011 the aircraft won the 2011 Berblinger competition,[36] an ambitious aerial challenge for “green” aircraft. The Antares 23E is a 23-meter version of the 20E featuring a wider range of wing-loading and higher performance, using the same propulsion system as the 20E and Arcus E. The Antares 23E first flew in December 2011, with series production commencing in early 2012.[citation needed]

Alan Cocconi and the SoLong[edit]

In 2005 Alan Cocconi, who founded the California (USA) electric-propulsion research company AC Propulsion, flew, with the assistance of several other pilots, an unmanned airplane named "SoLong" for 48 hours non-stop, propelled entirely by solar energy. This was the first such around-the-clock flight, on energy stored in the batteries mounted on the plane.[37][38]

Solar Impulse[edit]

Solar Impulse made its first "flea hop" test flight on December 2009

Main article: Solar Impulse Project

The first short-hop (350 m) test flight of the Solar Impulse prototype was made on 3 December 2009.[39]

In its present configuration it has a wingspan of 210 ft (64 m), weighs 3,500 lb (1,588 kg) and is powered by four 10-horsepower (7 kW) electric motors. The aircraft has over 11,000 solar cells on its wings and horizontal stabilizer. Power from the solar cells is stored in lithium polymer batteries and used to drive 3.5-metre (11 ft) propellers turning at a speed of 200–400 rpm. Take-off speed is 19 knots (35 km/h) and cruising speed is 30 kn (56 km/h).[40][41]

The aircraft had its first high flight on 7 April 2010, when it flew to an altitude of 1,200 meters (3,937 feet) in a 1.5-hour flight on battery power alone. The Solar Impulse team is planning to use a second two-place aircraft to circumnavigate the globe in 2015.[42]

The aircraft first flew on purely solar power, charging its batteries in flight, on 28 May 2010[43]

On 8 July 2010 it completed the first manned 24-hour flight completely powered by solar power.[44][45][46]

On 5 June 2012, the Solar Impulse successfully completed an intercontinental flight, the first-ever by a solar plane, flying a 19-hour trip from Madrid, Spain, to Rabat, Morocco.[47][48]

On 23 May 2013 the aircraft completed the second leg of its trip across the United States and landed at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport. This set a new world distance record for solar aviation.[49][50]

Electravia BL1E Electra[edit]

French BL1E Electra F-PMDJ : the first registered electric aircraft in the world. First Flight in Dec, 2007

The Electravia team, with the APAME Association, first flew its "Electra" electric-powered open-cockpit airplane on Sunday, 23 December 2007 at Aspres sur Buech airfield, Hautes Alpes, France. Test pilot Christian Vandamme, Electravia technical manager, flew the strut-equipped aircraft for 48 minutes, covering 50 km (31 mi). The BL1E "Electra" is powered by an 18-kW (24 hp) disk-brushed electric engine driven by a 47 kg (104 lb) KOKAM Lithium-Polymer battery power pack.[51][52] The BL1E "Electra" is the first registered aircraft in the world powered by electric engine and with batteries. It was the first electric realization of the French company Electravia.

Electravia Electro Trike[edit]

E-Trike : French electric delta trike

The Electravia Electro Trike is a single seater delta trike with an electric propulsion system from Electravia. First flight in June 2008 in Aspres sur Buëch, Hautes Alpes, France. Engine GMPE 102 of 26 hp. The 3 kWh pack of Lithium-Polymer batteries allows 1 hour of flight with ElectroTrike. Charge of a 3 kWh battery takes 1h30.[53]

First manned AA-battery-powered aircraft[edit]

Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. and undergraduates at the Tokyo Institute of Technology teamed up to build an aircraft powered by 160 AA battery cells and successfully flew it for a distance of 391 meters (1,283 ft) in July, 2006.[54]

Boeing-FCD Project[edit]

In 2008, The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator achieved straight-level flight on a manned mission powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.[55]

The FCD (Fuel Cell Demonstrator) is a project led by Boeing that uses a Diamond HK-36 Super Dimona motor glider as a test bed for a fuel cell powered light airplane research project.[56]

Successful test flights took place in February and March 2008.[56]

Boeing's partners in the project are Intelligent Energy of Britain (fuel-cell); Diamond Aircraft of Austria (Airframe); Spanish Sener (control system); Spanish Aerlyper (integrate motor with airframe); Advanced Technology Products, a U.S. company (motor, batteries, flight testing).[57]

QinetiQ Zephyr[edit]

The QinetiQ Zephyr is a lightweight solar-powered unmanned aerial vehicle engineered by the United Kingdom defence firm, QinetiQ. As of 23 July 2010 it holds the endurance record for an unmanned aerial vehicle of over 2 weeks (336 hours).[58]

It is of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer construction, the 2010 version weighing 50 kg (110 lb)[59] (the 2008 version weighed 30 kg (66 lb)) with a span of 22.5 metres[59] (the 2008 version had 18 metres (59 feet)). It uses sunlight to charge lithium-sulphur batteries during the day, which power the aircraft at night. The aircraft has been designed for use in observation and communications relay.[60]

The 2008 Zephyr version flew for 82 hours, reaching 61,000 foot in altitude in July 2008, the then unofficial world record for the longest duration unmanned flight. In July 2010 the 2010 version of the Zephyr made a world record unmanned aerial vehicle endurance flight of 336 hours, 22 minutes and 8 seconds (more than two weeks) and also set an altitude record of 70,000 feet.[61][62]

SkySpark[edit]

Skyspark in flight 2009

The SkySpark is a joint project of engineering company DigiSky and Polytechnic University of Turin. The two-seat Pioneer Alpi 300 has a 75 kW (101 hp) brushless electric motor powered by lithium polymer batteries. The aircraft achieved a world record of 250 km/h (155 mph) for a human-carrying electric aircraft on 12 June 2009.[63][64]

Green Pioneer Ι[edit]

Test Flight of “Green Pioneer I” in 2004

The Green Pioneer solar powered aircraft research programme was announced at the 4th China International Aviation and Aerospace Exhibition in 2002. The experimental programme was intended to provide research data for future Chinese solar powered aircraft. The programme was run by New Concept Aircraft (Zhuhai), the China Aviation Industry Development Research Center, and China Academy of Space Technology. The project leader and chief designer was Danny H. Y. Li.

Electric Airplanes

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Airplane Shop

Airplane Shop

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Flight Centre Limited is Australia's largest travel company. It is listed on the Australian Stock Exchange with an annual total turnover of $13.2 billion sales as at June 2012. It has over 2,500 stores in ten different countries with over 13,500 staff.[3] Flight Centre currently uses the slogan "unbeatable!" The book[[6] Family Village Tribe - The Evolution of Flight Centre (]published by Random House 1 July 2013) describes the company's development from a single store to a multi-billion dollar global corporation.

Flight Centre was founded by Graham "Skroo" Turner in 1981. Turner had previously run a successful budget bus trip company in Europe called Topdeck. Turner retains 18% of Flight Centre. By 1990, Flight Centre had opened stores in New Zealand, the UK and US. The UK and US offices were closed in 1991 in the face of the Gulf War. Expansion began again with a move to South Africa in 1994, Canada in early 1995, and the UK later that year. US operations recommenced in late 1999[4] It has been claimed that

"Flight Centre revolutionised the retailing of international air-travel in Australia by shifting to a model where profitability was driven by volume rather than margins. Initially they built a price advantage by bypassing ticketing wholesalers, seeking out less well-known airlines, and also by arbitraging price differentials across markets."[4]

The company grew rapidly, establishing different brands to cater for different parts of the travel market. It owns Corporate Traveller and FCm Travel Solutions for the corporate market, Student Flights, Overseas Working Holidays for the student market and also runs related businesses in the discount holiday organiser Escape Travel, travelthere.com, quickbeds.com, luxury holiday company Travel Associates, retail cruise specialist Cruiseabout and Campus Travel aimed at the academic and university markets. It also has a wholesale department, Infinity Holidays. Its website flightcentre.com has been the most popular Australian travel agency website for several years. It has operations in Australia ($4.4 billion 2004/5 sales), New Zealand ($639 million 2004/5 total transactions), South Africa ($365 million 2004/5 total transactions), United Kingdom ($909 million 2004/5 total transactions), United States ($65 million 2004/5 total transactions) and Canada ($415 million 2004/5 total transactions).

Flight Centre has diversified into other markets with a 50% acquisition of an established recruitment marketing business – Employment Office Australia in Jan 2008. A joint venture with 99 Bikes and the acquisition of Advanced Traders (Mérida bike brand) in 2009.

After decades of rapid and consistent growth in revenues and profits, Flight Centre flew into trouble in 2005 with its first ever decline in annual profit. For the year ending 30 June 2005, on a total revenue of $6.9 billion, its net profit was $67.9 million. Profit announcements for the half year ending 31 December 2005, showed a continuing fall in net profits to $33.6 million, a decline of 7.7% on the previous year.

It followed Graham Turner's departure from day-to-day operations when he stood aside from being Chief Executive Officer in 2002, allowing a senior manager Shane Flynn to replace him. He corrected this in July 2005, resuming his previous role as a hands-on manager as Executive Chairman.

The one time darling of the stock market, normally showing strong profit growth, was punished severely with it being the second worst performing stock in the Australian Stock Exchange's Top 200 companies. Its share price[when?] is down 57% from its peak in 2002. This reflected not only concerns about the company's management but also its long-term prospects.[original research?]

The company faces serious challenges, with disintermediation occurring in the travel industry. In 2006, Qantas announced that it would no longer pay base commissions to travel agents for domestic and New Zealand flights and that it would reduce international commissions from 7% to 5%. An increasing number of customers are following the lead of many of Flight Centre's suppliers and dealing with them directly through their own websites rather than going through travel agents. Some financial analysts are very concerned about this, with one issuing a sell recommendation on the stock in a report titled Flightless Centre.

In November 2006 a company associated with the founders and a private equity firm is offering $17.20 a share (and somewhat less to current "controlling" shareholders) to take Flight Centre back into private hands. In February 2007 the privatisation of Flight Centre failed when investment bank Lazard rejected the deal even though the majority of minority shareholders agreed with the privatisation bid. Flight Centre shares tumbled soon after the trading halt was lifted to around $15.[5]

In 2007, reported an annual profit of $174.0 m (before tax) rebounding strongly on 2005 profits.[3]

In 2008, Flight Centre acquired GOGO Worldwide Vacations, a travel wholesaler with more than 40 locations in the U.S. and in Canada. FCL posted profits of $201.0 m in 2008, before tax.[3]

In 2009, Flight Centre once again had decreasing profits, in a very challenging year for world travel, posting only $40.4 m, before tax.[3]

In 2010, Flight Centre acquired Gapyear.com, an global social network and travel advice website, and it was up substantially on the previous year with a profit of $198.5 m, before tax.[3]

In 2011, Flight Centre continued to trade strongly with a profit of $213.1 m, before tax.[3]

In 2012, Flight Centre acquired GoVoluntouring, a Canadian-based voluntourism organisation with programmes in 71 countries.

In 2013, Random House released the book, Family, Village Tribe, The Evolution of Flight Centre, which describes the company's journey from a single store to a multi-billion dollar global corporation.

Australia[edit]

In Australia, Flight Centre has 1152 business units, with a total turnover of $7.2b. The Australia EGM is Rachel Miller. Australia contributed $191.3m in before tax profits.[3]

United States[edit]

Operating primarily under the Liberty Travel brand in the US, EGM Dean Smith has 257 business units, which had a turnover of $1.5b generating a profit of $1.5m before tax.[3]

United Kingdom[edit]

The second largest country for Flight Centre in terms of profit, with $1.07b sales from 226 business units. From these sales the UK contributed $15.8 m in before tax profits. The UK EGM is Chris Galanty.[3]

Canada[edit]

There are Flight Centre locations all across Canada

New Zealand[edit]

Having opened its first store in New Zealand in 1987, there are more than 135 Flight Centre branded stores across both islands, making it the largest travel specialist in the country.

Other FCTG brands present in New Zealand include Student Flights, Cruiseabout, FCm Travel Solutions, Corporate Traveller, cievents, Stage and Screen, Infinity Holidays, Flight Centre Business Travel, Travel Associates and The Ticket Centre as well as Travel Money.

Flight Centre Limited was named New Zealand’s top large workplace employer for eight consecutive years (2002–2009) in the country’s largest and most prestigious annual workplace survey, The JRA Best Workplaces Awards. Ranking second overall in the large workplace category in 2011, FCTG won the Five-Year League award that year for appearing as a finalist consistently for five years.

Airplane Shop

Airplane Shop

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Largest Airplane

Largest Airplane

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The Antonov An-225 Mriya (Ukrainian: Антонов Ан-225 Мрія, Dream, NATO reporting name: "Cossack") is a strategic airlift cargo aircraft, designed by the Soviet Union's Antonov Design Bureau in the 1980s. The An-225's name, Mriya (Мрiя) means "Dream" (Inspiration) in Ukrainian. It is the largest airplane in the world; it is the heaviest aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 640 tonnes and the biggest heavier-than-air aircraft in terms of length and wingspan in operational service. The single example built so far currently bears the civil registration UR-82060 of its Ukrainian operator.[1]

The Antonov An-225, originally developed specifically to transport the Buran spaceplane, was an enlargement of the successful Antonov An-124. The first An-225 was completed in 1988 and a second An-225 has been partially completed. The completed An-225 is in commercial operation with Antonov Airlines carrying oversized payloads.[2] It holds the absolute world records for an airlifted single item payload of 189,980 kilograms (418,834 pounds),[3][4] and an airlifted total payload of 253,820 kilograms (559,577 pounds).[5][6] It has also transported a payload of 247,000 kilograms (545,000 pounds) on a commercial flight.[7]

The Antonov An-225 was designed to airlift the Energia rocket's boosters and the Buran space shuttle for the Soviet space program. It was developed as a replacement for the Myasishchev VM-T. The An-225's original mission and objectives are almost identical to that of the United States' Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.[8][9]

An-225 with Buran atop lands at the Paris Air Show in 1989.

The An-225 first flew on 21 December 1988 with a 74-minute flight from Kiev. The aircraft was on static display at the Paris Air Show in 1989 and it flew during the public days at the Farnborough air show in 1990. Two aircraft were ordered, but only one An-225 (registration CCCP-82060 later UR-82060[10]) was finished. It can carry ultra-heavy and oversize freight, up to 250,000 kg (550,000 lb) internally,[8] or 200,000 kg (440,000 lb) on the upper fuselage. Cargo on the upper fuselage can be 70 metres (230 ft) long.[11]

A second An-225 was partially built during the late 1980s for the Soviet space program. The second An-225 included a rear cargo door and a redesigned tail with a single vertical stabilizer. It was planned to be more effective for cargo transportation.[12] Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the cancellation of the Buran space program, the lone operational An-225 was placed in storage in 1994.[13] The six Ivchenko Progress engines were removed for use on An-124s, and the second uncompleted An-225 airframe was also stored. The first An-225 was later re-engined and put into service.[14][6]

By 2000, the need for additional An-225 capacity had become apparent, so the decision was made in September 2006 to complete the second An-225. The second airframe was scheduled for completion around 2008,[15] then delayed. By August 2009, the aircraft had not been completed and work had been abandoned.[2][16] In May 2011 Antonov CEO is reported to have said that the completion of a second An-225 Mriya transport aircraft with a carrying capacity of 250 tons requires at least $300 million, but if the financing is provided, its completion could be achieved in three years.[17] According to different sources, the second jet is 60–70% complete.[18]

Design[edit]

An-225 main landing gear

Based on Antonov's earlier An-124, the An-225 has fuselage barrel extensions added fore and aft of the wings, which received root extensions to increase span. Two more Ivchenko Progress D-18T turbofan engines were added to the new wing roots, bringing the total to six, and an increased-capacity landing gear system with 32 wheels was designed, some of which are steerable to turn the aircraft within a 60 m (200 ft) wide runway. Like its An-124 predecessor, the An-225 has nosegear designed to kneel so cargo is easier to load and unload.[6] The An-124’s rear cargo door and ramp were removed to save weight, and the empennage was changed from a single vertical stabilizer to a twin tail with an oversized horizontal stabilizer. The twin tail was essential to enable the plane to carry large, heavy external loads that would disturb the aerodynamics of a conventional tail. Unlike the An-124, the An-225 was not intended for tactical airlifting and is not designed for short-field operation.[8]

An-225 Ivchenko Progress D-18T turbofan engines

Initially the 225 had a maximum gross weight of 600 t (1,300,000 lb) but the aircraft underwent modifications from 2000 to 2001, at a cost of US$20M, with a reinforced floor that increased the maximum gross weight to 640 t (1,400,000 lb).[19][20][21]

Both the earlier and later takeoff weights establish the An-225 as the world's heaviest aircraft, being heavier than the double-deck Airbus A380 even though Airbus plans to surpass the An-225's maximum landing weight with 591.7 tonnes (1,304,000 lb) for the A380.[22] The Boeing 747 Dreamlifter has a bigger cargo hold at 1,840m3 (65,000 cubic feet).[23] The Hughes H-4 Hercules, known as the "Spruce Goose", had a greater wingspan and a greater overall height, but was 20% shorter, and due to the materials used in its construction, also lighter. In addition, the Spruce Goose flew only once, making the An-225 the largest aircraft in the world to fly multiple times.[6][24]

The pressurized cargo hold is 1,300 m3 (46,000 cu ft) in volume; 6.4 m (21 ft) wide, 4.4 m (14 ft) high, and 43.35 m (142.2 ft) long[6][25][26] — longer than the first flight of the Wright Flyer.[27][28][29]

Operational history[edit]

Antonov An-225 at Manchester Airport in 2006

As the Soviet space program was in its last years, the An-225 was employed as the prime method of transporting the Buran Shuttle.[24]

Antonov commercialization[edit]

In the late 1970s, efforts were begun by the Soviet government to generate revenue from its military assets. In 1989, a holding company was set up by the Antonov Design Bureau as a heavy airlift shipping corporation under the name "Antonov Airlines", based in Kiev, Ukraine and operating from London Luton Airport in partnership with the Air Foyle HeavyLift.[11][30]

The company initiated operations with a fleet of four An-124-100s and three Antonov An-12s, but by the late 1990s a need for aircraft larger than the An-124 became apparent. In response, the original An-225 was re-engined, modified for heavy cargo transport, and placed back in service under the management of Antonov Airlines.

The Antonov-225 at Gostomel Airport (Antonov airport), Ukraine

On 23 May 2001, the An-225 received its type certificate from the Interstate Aviation Committee Aviation Register (IAC AR).[31] On 11 September 2001, carrying 4 main battle tanks[6] at a record load of 253.82 tonnes (279.79 short tons) of cargo,[5] the An-225 flew at an altitude of up to 10,750 m (35,270 ft)[32] over a closed circuit of 1,000 km (620 mi) at a speed of 763.2 km/h (474.2 mph).[33][34]

Regular commercial flights[edit]

The type's first flight in commercial service departed from Stuttgart, Germany on 3 January 2002, and flew to Thumrait, Oman with 216,000 prepared meals for American military personnel based in the region. This vast number of ready meals was transported on some 375 pallets and weighed 187.5 tons.[35]

The An-225 has since become the workhorse of the Antonov Airlines fleet, transporting objects once thought impossible to move by air, such as locomotives and 150-ton generators. It has become an asset to international relief organizations for its ability to quickly transport huge quantities of emergency supplies during disaster relief operations.[36]

The An-225 has been contracted by the Canadian and U.S. governments to transport military supplies to the Middle East in support of Coalition forces.[36] In November 2004, FAI placed the An-225 in the Guinness Book of Records for its 240 records. An example of the cost of shipping cargo by An-225 was over 2 million DKK (approx. €266,000) for flying a chimney duct from Denmark to Kazakhstan in 2008.[37]

On 11 August 2009, the heaviest single cargo item ever sent via air freight was loaded onto the Antonov 225. At 16.23 metres (53.2 ft) long and 4.27 metres (14.0 ft) wide, the consignment–a generator for a gas power plant in Armenia and its loading frame–weighed in at a record 189 tonnes (420,000 lb).[3][4] Also during 2009, the An-225 was painted in a new blue and yellow paint scheme,[38] after Antonov ceased cooperation with AirFoyle and partnered with Volga-Dnepr in 2006.[39]

On 11 June 2010, the An-225 carried the world's longest piece of air cargo, when it flew two new 42-meter test wind turbine blades from Tianjin, China to Denmark.[40]

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Airplane Charter

Airplane Charter

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Air charter is the business of renting an entire aircraft (i.e., chartering) as opposed to individual aircraft seats (i.e., purchasing a ticket through a traditional airline). While the airlines specialize in selling transportation by the seat, air charter companies focus on individual private aircraft and itineraries, urgent or time-sensitive cargo, air ambulance and any other form of ad hoc air transportation. These air charter companies offer a large variety of aircraft, such as helicopters, and business jets; This includes light jets, mid-size jets, super mid size jets, heavy jets, and airliners. Package holiday companies often charter aircraft specifically for the holidays they sell.[citation needed]

European Aviation Air Charter was an airline based in Bournemouth, United Kingdom. It operated ad hoc charter services, VIP flights, and inclusive-tour and sub-charter flights, as well as ACMI wet leases for other airlines. Its main base was Bournemouth Airport.[1] The company went into administration on Tuesday 2 December 2008.[2]

European Aviation Air Charter Limited held a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence. It was permitted to carry passengers, cargo and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats.[3]

A European Aviation BAC 1-11 at Dublin Airport in July 1994.

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European Aviation Air Charter began in 1989, as European Aviation. Paul Stoddart, the boss of European Aviation Air Charter, saw a gap in the market for an ad-hoc charter airline. The aircraft used at first were rather old BAC-111 jets, which had been first built during the 1960s. The aircraft were flown over from Australia, as their previous owner was the Royal Australian Air Force. European Aviation was initially based in the building where the British Aircraft Corporation used to make aircraft such as the Vickers Viscount and the BAC-111s that the airline was operating. European Air Charter operated from Bournemouth Airport from its inception, making the airport a hub for the airline. The airline was profitable, so the company expanded its operation into other areas such as flight crew training, maintenance for other operators and leasing and selling aircraft.

In 1993, the company directors took the decision of changing European Aviation's name to European Aviation Air Charter, or EAC for short. That same year, twenty other BAC-111s were bought from British Airways. This meant the airline could include tour groups among its charter clients. By then the airline also acquired but never operated the far newer Airbus A300, as well as Boeing 737s. By 1997 European had acquired one Boeing 727 airliner as well.

European Air Charter asked for permission to land at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York, Chicago and other US and Canadian destinations in 2001. Due to the volume of passengers the airline projected to transport on each flight to North America, Boeing 747s were bought, once again from British Airways. A total of six former British Airways aircraft of that type entered service with the airline after the permits were granted. European Air Charter formed an association with Palmair, which flew passengers to Bournemouth so they could board the European Air Charter jets to North America.

However, in 2004 EAC started losing money. Paul Stoddart resumed control of EAC and went about cost-cutting; this involved selling or scrapping the Boeing 747s, selling some Boeing 737-200s and disposing of the rest of the fleet. In May 2008 it was announced that Paul Stoddart had sold his stake in OzJet to HeavyLift Cargo Airlines, and the four Boeing 737-200s which were in European's fleet were handed over in the process.

The airline was wholly owned by Paul Stoddart and had 270 employees (at March 2007)

Air Charter was a subsidiary of Air France and was established on 7 February 1966 under the name SAFA- Societé Aérienne Française d'Affrètements. Flight operations began on 25 July 1966 with two Sud Caravelle and two Lockheed Super Constellation aircraft. These flew charters from Paris to the Mediterranean. The airline changed its name on 8 December 1969 to Air Charter International (ACI). In 1971 ACI operated a fleet of seven Caravelle and carried about 420.000 passengers. The first two Boeing 727-200 were introduced in 1972. Transatlatic charter flights to the USA and Canada were offered from 1982 onwards with leased Boeing 747-200 aircraft operated by Air France. In 1984 the airline name was shortened to Air Charter. As the business grew, the first widebody aircraft was introduced in 1988, the Airbus A300B4. By the mid-1990s, the 727s were replaced by the Airbus A320. With the merger of Air France and Air Inter in 1998, Air Charter had served its purpose and services were discontinued on 24 October 1998.

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A Model aircraft is a small sized replica of an existing or imaginary aircraft. It may be flying or non-flying (static), and may be an accurate scale model of a full-size design.

Flying models range from simple toy gliders made of card stock or foam polystyrene to powered scale models made from materials such as balsa wood or fibreglass. some can be very large, especially when used to research the flight properties of a proposed real design.

Static models range from mass-produced toys in white metal or plastic to highly accurate and detailed models produced for display and requiring thousands of hours of work. Many models are available in kit form, typically made of injection-moulded polystyrene.

Aircraft manufacturers also produce wind tunnel models not capable of free flight, used for testing and development of new designs. Sometimes only part of the aircraft is modelled.

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Fokker F28

Static model aircraft (i.e. those not intended to fly) are scale models built using plastic, wood, metal, or paper. Some static models are scaled for use in wind tunnels, where the data acquired is used to aid the design of full scale aircraft.

Models are available that have already been built and painted; models that require construction, painting and gluing; or models that have been painted but need to be snapped together.

Promotional use[edit]

Most of the world's airlines allow their fleet aircraft to be modeled as a form of publicity.[1] In the early days, airlines would order large models of their aircraft and supply them to travel agencies as a promotional item.

Scale[edit]

Static model aircraft are primarily available commercially in a variety of scales from as large as 1:18 scale to as small as 1:1250 scale. Plastic model kits requiring assembly and painting are primarily available in 1:200, 1:144, 1:72, 1:50, 1:48, 1:32 and 1:24 scale, often depending on the size of the original subject. Die-cast metal models (pre-assembled and factory painted) are primarily available in 1:400, 1:200, 1:72, and 1:600, 1:500, 1:300, 1:250, 1:48. A variety of odd scales (e.g. 1:239) are also available but less common.

The scales are not random but are based on easy divisions of imperial measuring systems so that 1:48 scale is 1" to 4 feet, 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet. Even numbered scales are similarly based on metric systems. 1:72 scale was first introduced in the Skybirds wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932. Skybirds was followed closely by Frog which produced 1:72 scale aircraft in 1936 under the "Frog Penguin" name. According to Fine Scale Modeler magazine, 1:72 was also popularized by the US War Department (renamed the Department of Defense) when it requested models of single seat aircraft at that scale. The War Department also requested models of multi-engine aircraft at a scale of 1:144. The War Department was hoping to educate Americans in the proper identification of aircraft. These scales provided the best compromise between size and detail. After WWII, the toy manufactures continued to favor these scales. More detailed models are available at 1:32 and 1:24. Some manufacturers introduced 1:50 scale and 1:30 scale. Japan offers 1:100. The French firm Heller SA is the only manufacturer to offer models in the scale of 1:125. Herpa and others produce promotional models for airlines in scales including 1:200, 1:400, 1:500, 1:600, 1:1000 and more. A few First World War aircraft were offered at 1:28 by Revell, such as the Fokker Dr.I and Sopwith Camel.

A number of manufacturers have made 1:18th scale aircraft to go with cars of the same scale. Aircraft scales have commonly been different from the scales used for military vehicles, figures, cars and trains – the armour equivalent of 1:72 was 1:76 and the rail version was 1:87 scale however the difference between the scales can be noticeable and so a small number of kits have been offered over the years that match these alternate scales, while there has been a growing tendency in recent years for smaller military vehicle kits to use aircraft scales. This has resulted in a substantial amount of duplication of the more famous subjects in a large variety of sizes, which while useful for forced perspective box dioramas has limited the number of possible subjects to those that are more well known.

Other less popular scales are 1:50, 1:64, 1:96, and 1:128; however, old models are often revived in these scales. Many older plastic models, such as those built by Revell do not conform to any established scale as they were sized to fit inside standard commercially available boxes. These kits are often called "box-scale" and are often reissued in their original, unusual scales.[2] Some helicopters used to be offered in 1:32 scale, similar to some fixed-wing aircraft models. The trend is to issue helicopters in 1:35 scale, similar to most land vehicle models.

Materials[edit]

The most common form of manufacture for kits is injection molded polystyrene plastic, using carbon steel molds. Today, this takes place mostly in China, Taiwan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Eastern Europe. Injection molding allows a high degree of precision and automation not available in the other manufacturing processes used for models but the molds are expensive and require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Smaller and cheaper runs can be done with cast copper molds, and some companies do even smaller runs using cast resin or rubber molds, but the durability is of a lower standard than carbon steel and labour costs are higher.

Specialized kits cast in resin are available from companies such as Anigrand, Collect Aire, CMK, CMR, and Unicraft, made in molds similar to those used for limited run plastic kits. Vacuum forming is another common alternative to injection molded kits but require more skill to assemble, and usually lack detail parts that must be supplied by the modeller.[3] There is a handful of photo etched metal kits which allow a high level of detail but can be laborious to assemble, and lack the ability to replicate certain shapes.[4]

Scale models can be made from paper (normal or heavy) or card stock. Commercial models are printed by publishers mainly based in Germany or Eastern Europe.[5] Card models are also distributed through the internet, and several are offered this way for free. Card model kits are not limited to just aircraft, with kits being available for all types of vehicles, buildings, computers, firearms and animals.[citation needed]

From World War I through the 1950s, model airplanes were built from light weight balsa wood and often covered with tissue paper. This was a difficult, time consuming procedure that mirrored the actual construction of airplanes through the end of World War II. The Cleveland Model and Supply Corporation made the most challenging kits, while Guillow's made relatively easy kits. Many model makers soon became adept at creating models from actual aircraft drawings.[6]

Ready-made models (desk-top models) include those produced in fibreglass for travel agents and aircraft manufacturers, as well as collectors models made from die-cast metal, mahogany and plastic.[7] Snap Fit plastic plane models are manufactured[when?] by Wooster, Long Prosper, and Flight Miniatures.[citation needed]

Flying model aircraft[edit]

Main article: Radio-controlled aircraft

A free-flight hand-launched glider.

Generally known collectively in all its forms as the sport and pastime of aeromodeling, some flying models resemble scaled down versions of piloted aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like piloted aircraft. There are also models of birds and flying dinosaurs. The reduced size affects the model's Reynolds number which determines how the air reacts when flowing past the model, and compared to a full sized aircraft the size of control surfaces needed, the stability and the effectiveness of specific airfoil sections may differ considerably requiring subtle changes to the design.

Flying model aircraft used in the range of different aeromodeling activities can be placed in one of three groups:

Free flight (F/F) model aircraft fly without external control from the ground. This type of model pre-dates manned flight.[8]

Control line (C/L) model aircraft use cables (usually two) leading from one wing to the controller. A variation of this system is the Round-the-pole flying (RTP) model.

Radio-controlled aircraft have a transmitter operated by the controller, sending radio signals to a receiver in the model which in turn actuates servos which manipulate the model's flight controls in a similar manner to a full sized aircraft.

Construction[edit]

The construction of flying models differs from that of most static models as both weight and strength are major considerations. Flying models borrow construction techniques from full-sized aircraft although the use of metal is limited. These might consist of forming a frame using thin planks of a light wood such as balsa to duplicate the formers, longerons, spars and ribs of a vintage full sized aircraft, or on larger (usually powered) models where weight is less of a factor, sheets of wood, expanded polystyrene and wood veneers may be employed. Regardless of the underlying structure, it is then skinned and subsequently doped to provide a smooth sealed surface. For light models, tissue paper is used. After it is applied, the paper is sprayed with a mist of water, which causes the paper to shrink when it dries. For larger models (usually powered and radio controlled) heat-curing or heat shrink covering plastic films or heat-shrinkable synthetic fabrics are applied to the model then heated using a hand held laundry iron or heat gun to tighten the material and adhere to the frame. Microfilm covering is used for the very lightest models and is made by bringing the model up through water to pick up a thin plastic film on the surface made from a few drops of lacquer spread out over several square feet. For a more mass market approach, "foamies," or aircraft injection-molded from lightweight foam (sometimes reinforced) have made indoor flight more accessible to hobbyists. Many require little more than attachment of the wing and landing gear.

ParkZone P-51D Mustang

Flying models can be built from scratch using plans, or assembled from kits. Plans are intended for the more experienced modeller, since the builder must make or find all the parts themselves. A kit contains the necessary raw material, some molded parts, plans, assembly instructions and has usually been tested. Assembling a model either way can be labour-intensive. To increase the hobby's accessibility to the inexperienced, vendors of model aircraft have introduced Almost Ready to Fly (ARF) designs which reduce the time and skills required. A typical ARF aircraft can be built in under 4 hours, versus 10–20 or more for a traditional kit. More recently, Ready To Fly (RTF) radio control aircraft have been offered however among traditional hobbyists, RTF models are controversial as many consider model building integral to the hobby.

Gliders[edit]

Glider aircraft do not have an attached powerplant. Larger outdoor model gliders are usually radio-controlled gliders and hand-winched against the wind by a line attached to a hook under the fuselage with a ring, so that the line will drop when the model is overhead. Other methods include catapult-launching, using an elastic bungee cord. The newer "discus" style of wingtip handlaunching has largely supplanted the earlier "javelin" type of launch. Also using ground based power winches, hand-towing, and towing aloft using a second powered aircraft.

As gliders are unpowered, flight must be sustained through exploitation of the wind in the environment. A hill or slope will often produce updrafts of air which will sustain the flight of a glider. This is called slope soaring, and when piloted skillfully, radio controlled gliders can remain airborne for as long as the updraft remains. Another means of attaining height in a glider is exploitation of thermals, which are bubbles or columns of warm rising air created by hot spots on the ground. As with a powered aircraft, lift is obtained by the action of the wings as the aircraft moves through the air, but in a glider, height can only be gained by flying through air that is rising faster than the aircraft is sinking relative to the airflow.

Sailplanes are flown using thermal lift. As thermals can only be indirectly observed through the reaction of the aircraft to the invisible rising air currents, sailplane flying can be challenging.

Hang gliders are composed of rigid & material delta wings with a harness (payload) suspended from the airframe. Control is exercised through the movement of the harness in opposition to a control frame,

Paragliders are aircraft consisting of its parts: wing, strings, and a falling mass. Usually the wing of a paraglider is flexible, fabric wings, whose shape is formed by its suspension lines made taut by the paragliders falling payload and the pressure of air inflating either a single-skin or double-layered wing. Some wings are ram-air where air enters vents in the front of the wing. Control is exercised through lines that deform the trailing edge of the airfoil or the wing's end regions.

Walkalong gliders are lightweight model airplanes flown in the ridge lift produced by the pilot following in close proximity. In other words, the glider is slope soaring in the updraft of the moving pilot (see also Controllable slope soaring).

Power sources[edit]

Powered models contain an onboard powerplant to propel the aircraft through the air. Electric motor and internal combustion are the most common propulsion systems, but other types include rocket, small turbine, pulsejet, compressed gas and tension-loaded (twisted) rubber band.

Rubber and gas propulsion[edit]

An old method of powering free flight models is Alphonse Pénaud's elastic motor, essentially a long rubber band that is wound up prior to flight. It is the most widely used powerplant for model aircraft, found on everything from children's toys to serious competition models. The elastic motor offers extreme simplicity and survivability, but suffers from limited running time, and the fact that the initial high torque of a fully wound motor drops sharply before 'plateauing' to a more steady output, until finally declining as the final turns are run off. Using this torque curve efficiently is one of the challenges of competitive free-flight rubber flying, and variable pitch propellers, differential wing and tailplane incidence and rudder settings, controlled by an on-board timeswitch, are among the means of managing this varying torque and there is usually a motor weight restriction in contest classes. Even so, a competitive model can achieve flights of nearly 1 hour.[9][10]

Stored compressed gas (CO2), similar to filling a balloon and then releasing it, also powers simple models.

A more sophisticated use of compressed CO2 is to power a piston expansion engine, which can turn a large, high pitch prop. These engines can incorporate speed controls and multiple cylinders, and are capable of powering lightweight scale radio-controlled aircraft. Gasparin and Modella are two recent makers of CO2 engines. CO2, like rubber, is known as "cold" power because it becomes cooler when running, rather than hotter as combustion engines and batteries do.

Steam, which is even older than rubber power, and like rubber, contributed much to aviation history, is now rarely used. In 1848, John Stringfellow flew a steam-powered model, in Chard, Somerset, England. Hiram Stevens Maxim later showed that steam can even lift a man into the air. Samuel Pierpont Langley built steam as well as internal combustion models that made long flights.)

Baronet Sir George Cayley built, and perhaps flew, internal and external combustion gunpowder-fueled model aircraft engines in 1807, 1819 and 1850. These had no crank, working ornithopter-like flappers instead of a propeller. He speculated that the fuel might be too dangerous for manned aircraft.

Internal combustion[edit]

An internal combustion powered model aircraft.

Main article: Model engine

All internal combustion engines generate substantial noise (and engine exhaust) and require routine maintenance. In the 'scale-R/C' community, glow-engines have long been the mainstay until recently.

For larger and heavier models, the most popular powerplant is the glow engine. Glow engines are fueled by a mixture of slow burning methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant (castor oil or synthetic oil, which is sold pre-mixed as glow-fuel). Glow-engines require an external starting mechanism; the glow plug must be electrically heated until its temperature can trigger fuel-ignition, upon which the engine's combustion-cycle becomes self-sustaining. The reciprocating action of the cylinders applies torque to a rotating crankshaft, which is the engine's primary power-output. (Some power is lost in the form of waste-heat.)

Model Aircraft Engines

Vendors of model engines rate size in terms of engine displacement. Common sizes range from as small as 0.01 cubic inch (in3) to over 1.0 in3 (0.16 cc–16 cc). Under ideal conditions, the smallest .01 engines can turn a 3.5" (9 cm) propeller at speeds over 30,000 rpm, while the typical larger (.40-.60 cubic inch) engine will turn at 10–14,000 rpm.

The simplest glow-engines operate on the two-stroke cycle. These engines are inexpensive, yet offer the highest power-to-weight ratio of all glow-engines. Glow engines which operate on the four-stroke cycle, whether using ordinary poppet valves or occasionally rotary valves offer superior fuel-efficiency (power-output per fuel-consumption), but deliver less power than two-stroke engines of the same displacement – yet, often because the power they deliver is more suited to turning somewhat larger diameter propellers for lighter weight, more drag-producing airframe designs such as biplanes and scale aircraft models of pre-World War II full-scale subjects, four-stroke model engines, fueled either with methanol or gasoline fuels are slowly increasing in popularity from their generally lower noise output.

A very large "giant scale" US Coast Guard C-130J Hercules radio control flying model. The wingspan is 18 feet 6 inches (5.6 m). The crew of five who fly and maintain it are in the background.

Internal combustion (IC) engines are also available in upscale (and up-price) configurations. Variations include engines with multiple-cylinders, spark-ignited gasoline operation, and carbureted diesel operation. Diesel-combustion operates by compression-ignition. The compression-ratio is controlled by an adjustable threaded T screw on the cylinder head, bearing onto a contra piston within the cylinder bore. Diesels are preferred for endurance competition, because of their fuel's higher energy content, a mixture of ether and kerosene (with lubricating oil).

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